Cost model: Theatres

<B><FONT SIZE=”+2”>Introduction</FONT></B>Drama has been a major beneficiary of arts councils lottery awards. Up to April 1996, 132 awards were made to theatres by the Arts Council of England, amounting to £124.15m, which equated to 42.5% of the ACE total. The projects have ranged in scope from national institutions, such as the Royal National Theatre, to schools and community centers that require funding to improve access for disabled people or to upgrade stage facilities.

More than 100 theatres have been built since the mid-1950s, but the arts were starved of capital investment as local authority expenditure was cut during the 1980s. Arts councils’ grant funding is directed mainly at the revenue expenditure of production companies rather than capital spending on facilities. Consequently, lottery funding has been seen as an opportunity to create new spaces for drama, to re-equip existing theatres and also to generate new sources of revenue by improving bars, catering and other front-of-house facilities.

Lottery grants are awarded subject to the contribution of additional partnership funding. For projects worth more than £100 000, grants of up to 70% are made. There has been concern over the availability of partnership funding, particularly in Greater London, where there is no strategic authority to provide co-ordination and little opportunity to claim regeneration grants.

However, in the regions, the links between theatres and local authorities are stronger. There are also additional opportunities for raising moneys from European Union regeneration funding and other agencies, such as English Partnerships and English Heritage.

According to the Association of Business Sponsorship of the Arts, arts projects that are feasible and appropriate for regional needs are likely to be able to raise matching funds from public sources.
One source that is unlikely to deliver substantial capital investment is corporate sponsorship, as commercial donors prefer to sponsor productions, which are more high profile. The private sector’s principal contribution to lottery schemes to date has been assistance in kind and the secondment of staff to assist in the preparation of lottery applications.

<B><FONT SIZE=”+2”>Design considerations</FONT></B>Theatres vary widely according to the nature of the performances staged and the size of the potential audience. Practical limits on visual contact, acoustic range and the relationship between stage and auditorium are the key factors influencing design. The design issues are highly complex as they involve a balance in terms of the size of the auditorium, its facilities and the objective of direct, intimate and reciprocal communication between actors and audience. The additional demands of accommodating stage equipment and lighting, plus the specialist requirements of low-noise building services, combine to make theatre design a particularly challenging process that requires specialist input from theatre and acoustic consultants.

<B>Factors to consider</b>
The stage is the most important design factor. The size and form of the stage, side stages and fly tower can determine the architecture of both the auditorium and theatre.

Front-of-house provision is important because facilities such as restaurants, bars and bookshops are sources of revenue. The introduction of additional facilities such exhibition spaces helps increase the theatre’s daytime use.

Back-of-house facilities depend on the type of performance and the extent of rehearsal, storage and workshop facilities required to support a resident company. Backstage areas are commonly identified as the place where cost savings can be made. However, backstage areas are the most intensively used part of a theatre and the quality of the working environment may influence the ability of the management to attract the best performers and companies.

Modern standards of comfort and sightlines and a preference for open staging have resulted in a shift away from the traditional theatre design of proscenium arch, boxes and steeply narrow tiers.

Seating densities have been reduced by introducing broader rows and aisles and more comfortable seats are increasingly required to fulfil a range of functions such as a sports or conference venue. Multipurpose auditoria, where seating and stage layouts can be changed, are designed to satisfy the leisure needs of local authority clients and max mise the use and income-generating potential of the facility. Multi-use auditoria are the product of a series of compromises, and thus require additional capital spending on equipment to modify acoustics, seating and staging for theatre use.

The proscenium arch, if present, forms the traditional relationships between stage and auditorium and is ideal for opera, ballet and musicals. The physical barrier of the proscenium has the effect of distancing actor and audience. Thrust and apron stages, often adopted in modern theatre design, place stage and auditorium in the same volume, bringing actor and audience closer and consequently increasing the potential size of the auditorium.

Maximising audience capacity can have a detrimental effect on the quality of the auditorium, both in terms of the volumes into which the performers must project and the degree to which successful two -way communication can be made. Optimising capacity is an important commercial consideration, and the balance between comfortably accommodating both small and capacity audiences and stimulating additional demand by ticket scarcity is difficult.

Sightlines from the front, rear and sides of an auditorium determine the visible and, hence, usable stage area. Sightline limitations principally affect theatres with a proscenium arch, but the presence of seats with poor sight lines encourages theatres to offer a broader range of seat prices and therefore a more varied audience.

Acoustic requirements of auditoria are principally concerned with the suppression of background noise and tuning of the reverberation of the auditorium. The main sources of background noise are air-conditioning, stage lighting and outside noise. Acoustic performance, by contrast, is a product of auditorium shape and volume, reflective surfaces and density of audience.

Modern auditoria, being larger, less densely packed and having a greater volume per seat, tend to have a more reverberant acoustic, which requires additional acoustic treatment.

Fire safety in theatres is dealt with by isolating the stage area with fire-resistant construction and a fire curtain and drencher.

Sprinkler systems are desirable in the stage basement and at two levels in the fly tower. Fly towers are smoke vented. Escape routes from the stage and technical galleries should be direct.

Mechanical services installations for theatres have to deal with large air volumes and heat loads and the particular requirements of stage lighting and theatre ambience. Defining appropriate comfort conditions is difficult because of variations in potential audience size, performance length and other factors, such as whether the theatre is used during the day.

Additional difficulties caused by unique factors such as the radiant heat component from stage lighting and the behaviour of air in fly towers combine to make mechanical ventilation design particularly complex. Perceived air movement is a major contributor to audience comfort and ventilation systems that can move large air volumes (10-15 litres/sec/person) at very low noise levels are required. Low permitted noise reduction levels of 20-25 dB are common. This means large-section air ducts must be used and extra space is needed for plant, ducting, attenuation and isolations measures.

The principal source of electrical load is stage lighting. Theatres also require a wide range of dedicated light and power circuits to deal with different patterns of use. Provision should be made for stage production and working power; working lights for daytime and performance use; and auditorium lighting for performance and rehearsal/cleaning. The level of auditorium lighting determines the level of intensity required from stage lighting, and a progressive reduction of light levels from daylight to the auditoria should be introduced through foyer spaces. As a result, the capacity of the electrical system needs to be calculated carefully to balance economy and flexibility.

<B><FONT SIZE=”+2”>Refurbishment of existing auditoria</FONT></B>Traditional theatres, particularly from the Edwardian era, tend to be intimate, with good acoustic qualities and ambience. These qualities compensate for the poorer sightlines and lower comfort levels associated with older theatres. Theatre interiors are often listed and it is generally accepted that existing auditoria should be preserved while building services and front-and-back-of-house facilities are upgraded or reconstructed. Refurbishment will usually include a substantial element of new-build extension to give more space.

In particular, foyer areas, which were originally built to segregate the audience and were only available to occupants of the better seats, are often inadequate. Current practice is to enlarge foyers and include bars and restaurants.

Back-of-house facilities also often require extension, mainly to provide adequate dressing room and green room facilities. Where existing production facilities such as fly towers and stages are reused, the opportunity exists for strengthening these structures to take heavier modern stage equipment.

Likewise, building services often need upgrading. Traditionally, theatres used natural ventilation, occasionally fan-assisted, with a supply at low level and a roof-level extract, which typically operated in an erratic manner. Mechanical systems incorporating cooling or full air-conditioning are usual. However, threading ductwork through existing structures and providing adequate service access create problems, and a high-level supply solution is often adopted to get around these difficulties. Installing lifts for disabled access in both front-and-back-of-house areas can also create considerable difficulties.

<B><FONT SIZE=”+2”>Theatre economics and lottery funding</FONT></B>Only the successful commercial theatres, such as those in London’s West End, survive without subsidy. The sources of funding for the rest are the four art councils, local authorities and other bodies such as charitable trusts. Progressive reductions in public spending have lessened the extent to which theatres, in particular those without resident companies, can rely on public funds to cover operating deficits.

In such an economic climate, theatre managements are required to maximise the commercial income associated with theatre operations. Even ice cream and programme sales can generate substantially greater profits that ticket receipts. Investment in catering and front-of-house facilities intended to generate revenue is encouraged by lottery funding bodies, but can involve a high degree of commercial risk in fixed assets. Consequently, the cost, benefits and potential markets be commercial facilities should be appraised in considerable detail as part of a lottery application business plan.

Lottery funding distributed by the arts council is awarded with reference to eight criteria.
Benefit to the public. Particular importance is placed on a provision for disabled performers and audience and on equal opportunities should be made widely available to the public.
Effect on long-term financial stability. The short-term management of the project and long-term income and expenditure forecasts are assessed. Priority is given to projects that enhance the long-term financial viability of the end-user.
Sources of partnership funding. This is required in order to demonstrate a broad commitment to a project. Partnership funding can take the form of capital funding, support in kind or the funding of running costs. Funds raised for the three years prior to an application count as partnership funding.
Quality of design and construction. This encompasses fitness for purpose, suitability, environmental and energy-efficient concerns, access for disabled people and value for money.
Quality of artistic activities, including the impact of the lottery scheme on the quality and quantity of future work.
Relevance of projects to local regional and national arts development strategies.
Contributions of artists and craftspeople, including consultation and the commissioning of new work.
The quality of plans for education and marketing, to demonstrate how the facility will be promoted to the largest possible audience.

An important element of lottery assessment is a demonstration of the ability of the project sponsor and the design team to be able to deal with project uncertainties and to be able to deliver the project at stated time, cost and quality thresholds. Project and risk management methods have occasionally become common on arts projects as the techniques for demonstrating and achieving increased certainty in construction projects.

Lottery distributors such as the four arts councils also employ consultants as project monitors after an award has been made. Monitors are required to review progress of design and construction against programme, to assess achieved quality standards and to ensure that lottery moneys are used in accordance with the terms of the award.

<B><FONT SIZE=”+2”>Theatre equipment costs</FONT></B>Stage equipment is designed, specified and costed by specialist theatre consultants. The varied demands of repertory, touring and studio theatres result in very different performances requirements and budget levels. For example, the cost of a powered flying system is 10 times that of a conventional counterweight system.
The table (left) provides indicative costs for stage engineering, lighting, sound and communications systems for a range of theatres. Costs are for May 1996 and exclude preliminaries and other on-costs. The costs of theatre equipment vary little regionally. The location factors for the adjustment of construction work should not be applied to these costs.

<B><FONT SIZE=”+2”>Analysis of the model</FONT></B>The cost model is based on the refurbishment of a 680-seat theatre, the Cambridge Arts theatre, originally built in the 1930s. The gross floor areas of the development -3040 m2 over six levels including one basement - includes 1026 m2 of new-build construction.
Refurbishment work involves the reconstruction of front-and back-of-house areas around the retained auditorium and includes the reconstruction of the stage, scene dick and fly tower and the provision of improved back-of-house facilities. The refurbishment of the front of house includes a reorganization of foyer and circulation space, with improvements to kitchen and dining facilities. Disabled access for both audience and performers has been brought up to modern standards. The refurbishment of building services includes the introduction of ducted air-conditioning to the auditorium.

The unit rates are based on price levels in May 1996 for a competitive tender for a lump-sum contract in East Anglia. Enabling works, carried out as a separate contract, and external works are excluded. Adjustments to the unit rates should be made for the cost implications of programme, procurement route, location and site access.